State of native America, Ch. 3
Self-Determination and Subordination: The Past, Present and Future of American Indian Governance
American Indians have maintained better than anyone might have expected their culture, their aspirations, their land, and their autonomy after being overwhelmed by __________________ ______________________________.
Traditionally, the indigenous nations of this continent were entirely _____________________ and ____________________. Certain of the structures and principles of indigenous governance, notably the Iroquois Confederacy, were so advanced that they were used as a _______________ upon which the __________________________ was formulated and the ___________________________________ created. Between AD__________________ five tribes in New York formed a confederacy known by the Indians as _________________ ___________ and by the whites as the ________________ _________________________.
The governing council consisted of _____ civil chiefs, appointed by the __________ ____________. The _____________________ called them together once a year to resolve__________________ ______________________. Two other confederacies were the ________________________ and the ____________________.
The indigenous peoples of North America had __________________ forms of government well before the European invasion, and influenced the first modern democracy, in the ___________ and also Rousseau in ______________.
IMPLICATIONS OF US-INDIAN TREATIES
During the period after the American Revolution it was important for the new government to recognize the Indian nations because they held military power ______________________________________ __________________________________________. A new nation declares itself responsible by acting in accordance with customs and _________________________________________________. Because Indian nations already had been recognized as _____________ ______________________ by European powers, their recognition of the ____________________ gave it added legitimacy. Therefore, the relationship between the one US government and the various tribes and confederacies of the Indians was _________________ to _________________ in nature. These relationships were legitimized by the US Senate who ratified ______ treaties with Native American governments between 1778 and _______. Making a treaty with someone is legal only if that entity is a _______________ nation, therefore it is clear that Indian nations were considered independent
This state of independence was unilaterally changed by the US govt in 1886 in the US v. Kagama case, when the status of indigenous governments was ______________________ to that of the US. Further legislation in the 1950s, lowered the __________ of Indian nations to a level __________ that of the states, more like counties. It has been asserted that there now exists a condition of __________________ _________________________ , because the US has usurped the rights of Indian nations to _______________________ and the US is now claiming indigenous ____________________ as its own and benefiting from their _______________________.
EFFECTS OF THE ‘INDIAN WARS’
One ______________ years of wars were initiated by _____________________and could more accurately be called wars of ______________ . Some leaders were killed in these attacks, some were assassinated or ______________________ far from their homes. Then the US developed a policy of appointing__________________of its own, who accepted treaties without the authority of their ____________. Nations defeated in war possess an ability to ______________________ themselves afterwards, unless the victor takes steps to __________ this. US Indian policy was designed to _____________ any sort of autonomous _________________________________. Instead, the stage was set for the _________________________________ ___________________ to the US.
FROM SOVEREIGNTY TO SUBORDINATION
Reservations were created to guarantee __________________ protection against encroachment by whites in return for the cessation of fighting and an agreement to cede the __________ _____________ of their land. These reservations were created through treaties by the US Senate between 1778 and 1877.
But in 1885 legislation was passed that seriously impacted Native sovereignty, _________________________________________ , which gave the govt jurisdiction over felonies committed by Indians on their own land rather than allowing them to use their own traditional methods.
In 1887, the ____________________________________________ was passed which took away Indians rights to collectively share tribal land and forced the reservation to be divided into individual allotments. Under this act, each head of family received __________________, each single person over 18 received _____________________ , while children received ______________________ . Indians that were part white received full ____________ to their lands; fullbloods had to wait ________ years and were given the title in _________ . All other lands that had been part of the reservation were opened to _______________________ ____________________ or converted to _____________________________________ . Another part of the General Allotment Act was to require mixed blood Indians to accept _________________________________ , thus forcing them to shift alliance away from the tribe. After World War II, in 1924, the US passed the ___________________________________________________ forcing all Indians to accept citizenship.
REORGANIZATION
In response to the Committee of One Hundred report which recommended that native nations be ________________ the Meriam Report focused on the development of ______________ resources which might pay the costs of the treaty obligations. But they found that the fragmentation of land through allotments would make future development more difficult. It strongly recommended that land be __________________________, and be governed by _________________ ______________ responsible to the Secretary of the ____________ . In 1934, Congress passed the ______________ _____________________ _______, also called the ______________ _______________ _______ . This act forced natives to draft constitutions and make decisions subject to the approval of the _________________ __ ___ ________________ , or his delegate in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Majority rule was forced on them which is opposed to the ________________ form of decision making traditional in most native groups. Money was appropriated to convince tribes to _____________ reorganization and a revolving fund of $10 million was set up for tribal govts to make loans for _____________________ ____________________with businesses.
However, grassroots native resistance to the law was __________, _____________, and_________________. . Several tribes who preferred their original __________ with the US govt were pressured by Indian Commissioner John Collier to accept. By 1938, 189 Indian _________ submitted to reorganization, while ________ nations rejected it outright. But in the face of continued manipulation, including the dead voting in the Oglala Lakota elections, by 1940, the prevailing system of _________________ government on reservations was largely in place. This has led to a conflict between two groups, federal and corporate elites who wish to assimilate or terminate native peoples and IRA liberals who prefer to maintain colonies on the reservations. The choice offered Indian people is to endorse their own ___________________ or to risk _____________________ by engaging in fights for liberation.
Termination and Relocation (p.98)
The BIA began a new policy after World War II to ________ a large number of Indian nations. In the year of ____ legislation passed Congress which would dissolve _________ indigenous nations. Indians who had survived having their ranches burned and being murdered 100 years earlier in the state of ___ , now found themselves disenfranchised.
In 1956, the _______Act diminished allocations to Indian nations, resulting in poorer service at ______ and _______and _______jobs, which pushed per capita income _______. The legislation provided money instead for moving expenses, __________ and brief __________ at approved urban centers. About ___% of Indians migrated to distant cities by 1980.
Attorney ____________ wrote a legal argument used by several tribes to avoid being terminated. This argument was furthered by two groups _______ and ______ until in 1958 the __________ administration agreed not to further support the legislation. This gave power to the _____liberals who allowed reservation land bases to be _______by US Corporations. The policy of ________________was not officially negated until 1968 when the _________________ was passed.
Activism and Self-Determination
In 1961, at the U. of __________ , students Clyde _______ and later in NCAI __________________ became leaders. Shortly after in 1968, the radical group, the _______ __________ ___________ was founded. The first Indian occupation of _____________ Island brought ____________ attention to the cause of Indian rights.
Earlier in 1966, Pres. ___________ had studied Indian issues and passed legislation which gave Indians the right to sue the ______________ for the first time. The Alaskan Native Claims Settlement Act gave Indians real autonomy and _______________________.
Under Richard Nixon’s government, policies split Indians into two factions, those who supported the status quo BIA control of Indians and those who supported _________________. This led to a conflict in 1973 when a large group organized by AIM as the Trail of ________ ________ arrived in Wash., DC and took over the ______. Later, more conflict between the IRA authorized tribal govts and local contingents resulted in the 71 day armed conflict at _________ _____ Eventually, Nixon changed and asked Congress to advance a more representational Indian Policy and in 1975 they passed the __________________. Unfortunately, the policy continues control by the BIA and govt. enabled leadership, with little room for grassroots democracy.