Director: Rutgers University Pinelands Field Station
John Dighton
dighton@camden.rutgers.edu
Director: Rutgers University Pinelands Field Station
POPULATION ECOLOGY 56-120-590-01
(Graduate course - Camden - Fall 2000 and alternate 3 years -- 56 120
590 01)
This course will introduce the concepts of populations, discuss the
relevance of models of population growth and population interactions. These
will be put into a ‘real world’ context by reviewing the literature for
examples of population modeling and measures populations of plants and
animals to see how they compare. Emphasis will be placed on discussing
the relative merits of different methods for sampling.
One or two field trips will be organized for weekends (these will replace
scheduled class times) where populations will be enumerated. Data and samples
will be analyzed in class time. Two computer modeling sessions are scheduled
for ‘hands on’ experience of the complexities of modeling.
Each scheduled class period will be spilt with lecture/discussion occupying
half of the time and an ‘activity’ for the other half.
Evaluation will be based on contribution to discussion, presentation
of articles for discussion, essays and interpretation of practical exercises
--- there will be no formal examination.
| Week 1 | Introduction to ecosystem components, species, individuals, populations, communities, trophic interactions - definitions. |
| Week 2 | Simple population growth - linear, exponential and logistic population growth - introduction to mathematics and statistics. |
| Week 3 | Field trip - measurement of plant populations |
| Week 4 | Introduction of age classes in populations: Analysis of plant population data |
| Week 5 | Field trip - measurement of insect and arthropod populations |
| Week 6 | Age specific factors regulating populations: Patterns of population distribution - analysis of insect and arthropod population data |
| Week 7 | Competition: Lotka-Volterra and beyond |
| Week 8 | STELLA modeling session |
| Week 9 | STELLA modeling session |
| Week 10 | Predation - predator / prey interactions |
| Week 11 | Metapopulations |
| Week 12 | Island biogeography |
| Week 13 | Methods for sampling populations - comparison of methods for different organisms. different habitats - accuracy, assumptions, confidence in data |
| Week 14 | Filling in the gaps: the problem with clonal organisms, biomass vs population |
THE ECOLOGY OF SOIL
ORGANISMS 11-704-420
400 - 500 level (undergraduate/graduate) course
Spring 2001 - Tuesdays 4&5 (1:10-4:10 pm) Hickman 117
This course will introduce the diversity of organisms and complexity of communities in below-ground ecosystems. Soils are a finite resource and are essential for the supply of food and maintenance of natural ecosystems. Conservation and sustainability of agriculture and forestry depends on knowledge of soil organisms, their interactions in relation to the processes they influence and their response to anthropogenic disturbance. In addition to describing the range and diversity of soil organisms, their role in the development of soils, soil structure, soil fertility and the ecosystem processes of decomposition, primary and secondary production will be discussed. Throughout, the problems of studying organisms in an opaque medium will be discussed and comparative methodology will be a major component of the course.
The course will be a mixture of lectures and discussion of current published material. Students will be expected to read current literature in addition to the assigned textbook: ‘Fundamentals of Soil Ecology’, D. C. Coleman & D. A. Crossley. Each 3 hour class meeting will be split into a lecture and an activity (discussion of recent papers, practical exercises etc.).
Grades will be awarded for mid-term and final examinations in addition to essays and discussion assignments during the course. It is EXPECTED that students will contribute to class discussions and marks towards the final grade will be awarded on this basis.
Graduate students will be expected to produce an in-depth review article on a selected area of the syllabus to gain graduate credits.
This course has been designed to compliment ‘Soil Ecology’ 11:375-453,
which is primarily process oriented. The Ecology of Soil Organisms will
add the organismal component to these processes, hence it is anticipated
that there will be less than 20% overlap in the course material.
| Week 1: | Soil as a place to live - an outline of the structure of soil, soil formation, comparisons between natural and agricultural soils. |
| Week 2: | The soil microbial flora - Bacteria, Actinomycetes and Fungi - an outline of who they are, where they live and some of the processes they are involved in. |
| Week 3: | The soil microfauna - Protozoa, Nematoda, Enchytraeida, Acari, Collembola - an outline of who they are, where they live and the processes they are involved in. |
| Week 4: | The soil mesofauna - Earthworms, Diplopoda, Chilopoda, Diptera, Aranaea - an outline of who they are, where they live and the processes they are involved in. |
| Week 5: | Methods to assess populations/biomass of soil organisms - the problems of not being able to see what you are dealing with. ‘Beyond the Biomass’. |
| Week 6: | Decomposition of plant litter in soil - an introduction to the interactions between the soil biota and resource quality. Successions of organisms during resource utilization. Mineralization and immobilization. Part 1. |
| Week 7: | Mid Term examination |
| Week 8: | Decomposition of plant litter in soil - an introduction to the interactions between the soil biota and resource quality. Successions of organisms during resource utilization. Mineralization and immobilization. Part 2. |
| Week 9: | Soil community structure - food webs, interactions, competition and synergism |
| Week 10: | The soil biotic community and primary production - saprotrophs, mycorrhizae and pathogens. |
| Week 11: | Comparison between natural and agro-ecosystems. Minimal till agriculture and agroforestry as alternatives to conventional agriculture. |
| Week 12: | Effects of pollutants on soil biota and effects of soil biota on pollutant chemicals. |
| Week 13: | Soil health, erosion, desertification, loss of soil biotic diversity and the consequences of soil degradation - beyond ecotoxicology. |
| Week 14 | Final Examination |
Readings Deposited in the Chang Library
1. METHODS
Beare M.H., Neely C. L., Coleman D. C., and Hargrove
W.L. (1991). Characterisation of a substrate-induced respiration method
for measuring fungal, bacterial and total microbial biomass on plant residues.
Agriculture Ecosystems and the Environment 34: 65-73.
Frostegard, A., Tunlid, A., and Baath, E. (1993). Phospholipid fatty acid composition, biomass and activity of microbial communities from two soil types experimentally exposed to different heavy metals. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 3605-3617
Helling, B., Pfeiff, G., and Larink, O. (1998). A comparison of feeding activity of collembolan and enchytraeid in laboratory studies using the bait-lamina test. Appl. Soil Ecol. 7: 207-212.
Montgomery, H. J.; Monreal, C. M.; Young, J. C., and Seifert, K. A. (2000) Determination of soil fungal biomass from soil ergosterol analyses. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32:1207-1217.
Ritz, K and Griffiths, B. S.(1994). The potential application of a community hybridization technique for changes in the population structure of soil microbial communities. Soil Biol. Biochem. 26: 963-971.
Wodarz D., Aescht E., and Foissner W.(1992). A weghted coenotic index (WCI): Description and application to soil animal assemblages. Biol. Fertil. Soils 14: 5-13.
2. FAUNA-MICROBE INTERACTIONS – FOOD WEBS
Bardgett, R. D. and Chan, K. F. (1999) Experimental evidence
that soil fauna enhance nutrient mineralization and plant nutrient uptake
in montaine grassland ecosystems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31:1007-1014.
Bethlenfalvay, G.J., Cantrell, I. C., Mihara, K.L., and Schreiner, R. P. (1999). Relationships Between Soil Aggregation and Mycorrhizae as Influenced by Soil Biota and Nitrogen Nutrition. Biol. Fertil Soils28: 356-363.
Hyodo, F.; Inoue, T.; Azuma, J.-I.; Tayasu, I., and Abe, T. (2000) Role of the Mutualistic Fungus in Lignin Degradation in the Fungus-Growing Termite Macrotermes gilvus (Isoptera Macrotermitinae). Soil Biol. Biochem. 32: 653-658
Lussenhop, John (1992). Mechanisms of Microarthropod-Microbial interactions in soil. Advances in Ecological Research 23: 1-33.
Newell, K.(1984). Interactions between two decomposer basidiomycetes and a collembolan under Sitka spruce: grazing and its potential effects on fungal distribution and litter decomposition. Soil Biol. Biochem. 16: 235-239
3. DECOMPOSITION AND MINERALIZATION
Dighton, J. (1997). Nutrient Cycling by Saprotrophic
Fungi in Terrestrial Habitats. In: The Mycota IV: Environmental and
Microbial Relationships. Ed. D. T. Wicklow & B. Soderstrom, Springer
Verlag, pp. 271-279.
Frankland, J.C. (1994). Mechanisms in fungal succession. In: The Fungal Community: its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem, Edited by G. C. Carroll and D. T. Wicklow. pp. 383-401.
Ponge, J. F.(1991). Succession of fungi and fauna during decomposition of needles in a small area of Scots pine litter. Plant and Soil 138: 99-113.
Zhu, W and Ehrenfeld, J. G (1996). The effects of mycorrhizal roots on litter decomposition, soil biota, and nutrients in a spodosolic soil. Plant and Soil 179: 109-118.
4. MYCORRHIZAE AND NUTRIENT UPTAKE
Duponnois, R., Garbaye, J., Bouchard, D., and Churin,
J.L. (1993). The fungus-specificity of mycorrhization helper bacteria (MHBs)
used as an alternative to soil fumigation for ectomycorrhizal inoculationof
bare-root Douglas-fir planting stocks with Laccaria laccata. Plant and
Soil 157: 257-262.
Garbaye, J. (1994). Helper bacteria: a new dimension to the mycorrhizal symbiosis. New Phytol. 128: 197-210.
Hamel, C., Dalpe, Y., Furlan, V., and Parent, S. (1997). Indigenous populations of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and soil aggregate stability are major determinants of leek (Allium porrum L.) response to inoculation with Glomus interadices Schenk & Smith or Glomus versiforme (Karsten) Berch. Mycorrhiza 7: 187-196.
Leake, J. R. and Read, D. J. (1997) Mycorrhizal fungi in terrestrial habitats. In: The Mycota IV: Environmantal and Microbial Relationships Ed. D. T. Wicklow & B. Söderström, pp. 281-301.
Simard, S.W., Perry, D.A., Jones, M.D., Myrold, D.D., Durall, D.M., and Molina, R. (1997). Net transfer of carbon between ectomycorrhizal tree species in the field. Nature 338: 579-582.
Smith, J.E., Molina, R., and Perry, D.A. (1995). Occurrence of ectomycorrhizas on ericaceous and coniferous seedlings grown in soils from the Oregon Coast Range. New Phytol. 129: 73-81.
5. AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY
Beare, M. H, Pohlad, B. R, Wright, D. H, and Colemand,
D. C.(1993). Residue placement and fungicide effect on fungal communities
in conventional and no-tillage soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 57:
392-399.
Beare M. H, Parmelee R. W, Hendrix P. F, Cheng W, Coleman D. C, and Crossley D. A. Jr. (1992). Microbial and Faunal Interactions and Effects on Litter Nitrogen and Decomposition in Agroecosystems. Ecological Monographs 62: 569-591.
Butterfield, J. (1999). Changes in decomposition rates and Collembola densities during the forestry cycle in conifer plantations. J. Appl. Ecol. 36: 92-100.
Coleman, D.C., Hendrix, P.F., Beare, M.H., Crossley, D.A., Hu, S., and van Vliet, P.C.J. (1998). The impacts of management and biota on nutrient dynamics and soil structure in sub-tropical agroecosystems: impacts on detritus food webs. In: Soil Biota Management in Sustainable Farming Systems, Edited by C. E. Pankhurst, B. M. Doube, V.V.S.R. Gupta, and P. R. Grace. CSIRO, Melbourne, Australia pp. 133-143.
Wardle, D. A.; Yeates, G. W.; Nicholson, K. S., and Bonner, K. I. (1999) Effects of agricultural intensification on soil-associated arthropod population dynamics, community structure, diversity and temporal variability over a seven-year period. Soil Biol.Biochem. 31:1691-1706.
6. DIVERSITY AND FUNCTION
Andren, O., Bengtsson, J., and Clarholm, M. (1995). Biodiversity
and species redundancy among litter decomposers. In: The Significance
and Regulation of Soil Biodiversity. Edited by Collins, H. P., Robertson,
G. P., and Klug, M. J. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. pp.
141-151.
Behan-Pelletier, V. M (1993) Biodiversity of Nearctic
soil arthropods. Can. Biodiversity 2: 5-14.
Behan-Pelletier, V. M. and Newton, G. (1999). Linking
soil biodiversity and ecosystem function -- The taxonomic dilema. BioScience49:
149-153.
de Ruiter, P.C., Neutel, A.-M., and Moore, J.C. (1998). Biodiversity in soil ecosystems: the role of energy flow and community stability. Appl. Soil Ecol. 10: 217-228.
Hodkinson, I.D. and Wookey, P.A. (1999). Functional Ecology of Soil Organisms in Tundra Ecosystems: Towards the Future. Applied Soil Ecology 11 : 111-126.
Huhta, V., Persson, T., and Setala, H. (1998). Functional implications of soil faunal diversity in boreal forests. Appl. Soil Ecol. 10: 277-288.
7. POLLUTION – ENVIRONEMNTAL CHANGE
Briones, M.J.I., Ineson, P., and Piearce, T.G. (1997).
Effects of Climate Change on Soil Fauna; Responses of Enchytraeids, Diptera
Larvae and Tardigrades in a Transplant Experiment. Applied Soil Ecology6:
117-134.
Coleman, D C, Odum, E. P., and Crossley, D. A. Jr. (1992). Soil biology, soil ecology, and global change. Biol. Fert. Soil.14: 104-111.
Ledin, M.; Krantz-Rulcker, C., and Allard, B. (1999) Microorganisms as metal sorbents: comparison with other soil constituents in multi-compartment systems. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31:1639-1648.
Scullion, J. and Malik, A. (2000) Earthworm activity affecting organic matter, aggregation and microbial activity in soils restored after open cast mining for coal. Soil Biol. Biochem. 32:119-126.
Wardle, D.A., Verhoef, H.A., and Clarholm, M. (1998). Trophic relationships in the soil microfood-web: predicting the responses to a changing global environment. Global Change Biology 4:
Zhdanova, N.N., Vasilevskaya, A.I., Artyshkova, L.V., Sadovnikov, Y.S., Gavrilyuk, V.I., and Dighton, J. (1995). Changes in the micromycete communities in soil in response to pollution by long-lived radionuclides emitted by in the Chernobyl accident. Mycological Research98: 789-795.
8. SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL HETEROGENEITY
Morris, S. J. (1999) Spatial distribution of fungal and
bacterial biomass in southern Ohio hardwood forest soils: fine scale variability
and microscale patterns. Soil Biol. Biochem.. 31:1375-1386.
Morris, S J. and Boerner, R. E. J. (1999) Spatial distribution of fungal and bacterial biomass in southern Ohio hardwood forest soils: scale dependency and landscape patterns. Soil Biol. Biochem. 31: 887-902.
Pouyat, R.V., Parmelee, R.W., and Carriero, M.M. (1994). Environmental effects of forest soil-invertebrate and fungal densities in oak stands along an urban-rural land use gradient. Pedobiologia 38: 385-399.
Robertson, G. P. and Freckman, D.W. (1995). The spatial distribution of nematode trophic groups across a cultivated ecosystem. Ecology76: 1425-1432.
Ruess, L. (1995). Studies on the nematode fauna of an acid forest soil: spatial distribution and extraction. Nematologica41: 229-239.
9. ORGANISMS AND SOIL STRUCTURE
Bethlenfalvay, G.J., Cantrell, I. C., Mihara, K.L., and
Schreiner, R. P. (1999). Relationships Between Soil Aggregation and Mycorrhizae
as Influenced by Soil Biota and Nitrogen Nutrition. Biol. Fertil. Soils28:
356-363.
Kooistra, M. J. (1991). A micromorphological approach to the interactions between soil structure and soil biota. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment. 34.: 315-328.
Lodge, D. J. and Ashbury, C. E. (1988). Basidiomycetes reduce export of organic matter from forest slopes. Mycologia 80: 888-890.
Miller, R.M. and Jastrow, J.D. (1992). The role of mycorrhizal fungi in soil conservation. In: Mycorrhizae in Sustainable Agriculture, Edited by G. J. Bethlanfalvay and R. G. Linderman. American Society of Agronomy, Special Publication No. 54, Wisconsin, USA pp. 29-44.
10. MOVEMENT OF MICROBES BY FAUNA
Daane, L.L., Molina, J.A.E., Berry, E. C., and Sadowsky,
M.J. (1996). Influence of earthworm activity on gene transfer from Pseudomonas
fluorescens to indigenous soil bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbol.
62:
515-521.
Doube, B. M, Ryder, M. H, Davoren, C. W, and Meyer, T. (1995). Earthworms: a down-under delivery service for biocontrol agents of root disease. Acta Zool. Fennica. 196: 219-223.
EARTH SYSTEM STUDIES
Course: 11:015:401 Earth System Studies (3 credits - Junior/Senior
Colloquium)
Normally offered: Alternate spring by Professor John Dighton
Pre-requisition and other registration restrictions: Undergraduates
in their Junior or Senior year.
Format:
Each weekly 3 hour session will consist of a mixture of lectures, discussions,
invited speakers, project activities. The course will include computer
sessions to ‘surf the web’ for relevant information and to understand the
basic principles of modeling.
Description:
This course will discuss the effects of climate change and anthropogenic
impacts on ecosystems and will address some of the ways in which we can
alleviate the problems we are facing. As a colloquium course, the format
will be less formal than regular lecture courses and will rely on discussion,
problem solving, projects and free thinking. The intent of the course is
to promote thinking and fee exchange of information. As this subject crosses
boundaries between scientific research, politics and commercial enterprise,
all information examined and discussed will be appraised for quality and
bias. Two computing sessions will be incorporated in the course. One will
evaluate the relevant information disseminated on the Internet and the
second to appreciate the complexity and limitations of models.
Examinations:
There will be no formal examination. Grades will be assigned on the
basis of performance in written assignments, group projects and contribution
to discussions. Group projects will be presented in a poster format at
the end of the course, which will be evaluated by a team of ‘visitors’
to the poster session.
Other Requirements:
An open mind and a willingness to enter into discussions are essential
pre-requisites for this course.
EARTH SYSTEM STUDIES SPRING - EXAMPLE SYLLABUS
| Week 1 | General introduction to the course: Who are we? What are we trying to achieve? Rules of the game! Brainstorming. |
| Week 2 | Introductory lecture: Dr. Jim Miller - Climate Change |
| Week 3 | (a). History of the Earth - development of atmosphere - the greenhouse. (b). Activity - construction of chart showing the main perturbations seen through the Earth's history. |
| Week 4 | (a). How does Earth regulate its climate? (b). Discussion on anomalies in Earth's climate - storms, droughts, El-nino. |
| Week 5 | (a). Ecosystems - what are they? who lives there?
how do we think they function? - introduction to the concepts of feedbacks,
homeostasis and Gaia.
(b). Activity - composition and characteristics of ecosystems of major climatic zones. |
| Week 6 | (a). Scale - concepts and problems of dealing
with spatial and temporal scale. Introduction to the concept of models.
(b). Activity - invited lecture and / or discussion of research projects for final presentations. |
| Week 7 | (a). Populations - concepts of population growth and interactions in natural systems. Population reglation and the concept of 'feedbacks'; measures of population size and distribution. (b). Activity - swap class with Marie Siewerski. |
| Week 8 | (a.) Activity - guest speaker / chairperson for
discussion on moral and ethical issues related to human populations.
(b) Scale, models, populations and climate - a review |
| Week 9 | Computer Lab I -- Population growth, limitations, feedbacks. |
| Week 10 | Computer Lab II -- Simple earth climate model. |
| Week 11 | Computer Lab III -- Other models. |
| Week 12 | (a). Non greenhouse gas anthropogenic pollutants: heavy metals, radionuclides, PCBs etc. - lecture discussion. (b). Project work. |
| Week 13 | (a). Limiting resources, feedbacks, homeostatsis - Gaia revisited with better information! (b). Activity - value of biodiversity. |
| Week 14 | Presentation of group research projects in a judged poster session. |
FUNGI IN ECOSYSTEMS 11-770-402
This couse is being taught in conjunction with Mycology. The course is team taught by Drs. Jim White and John Dighton with Dr. Peter Oudemans. The course introduces students to the variety of fungal forms, taxonomy of the fungi, life cycles, their ecology and biology, their role in the ecosystsem and their many uses to man.
Course: 11:770:402 Fungi in the Environment (3 credits – Junior-Senior Colloquim)
Normally offered: Fall semester by Professors John Dighton and Jim White
Pre-requisition and other registration restrictions: Open to Juniors
and Seniors, but this course is combined with a general mycology course
as formerly taught by Dr. White
Format:
The class meets twice per week for 80 min class periods. One class
is taught by Dighton, the other by White. The class periods will be a mixture
of lecture, practical and discussion. A fungal foray to the Pinelands Field
Station will be part of the course.
Description:
This part of the course explores the statements that Rayner makes in
his introductory comments in The Fungal Community: Its Organization and
Role in the Ecosystem. Ed. G/ C. Carrol & D. T. Wicklow (1992)
that (i) As decomposers, fungi drive the global carbon cycle; (ii) As mycorrhizal
symbionts, they form absorptive accessories to roots, linking the activities
of separate plants and underpinning primary production in forests, heathlands
and grasslands; (iii) In lichens, they clothe what might otherwise be bare
parts of the planet and (iv) As parasites, they regulate the population
dynamics of their hosts.’
The diversity, function, community interaction and interaction in trophic webs will be explored in relation to the broader picture of the role of fungi in the processes that underlie ecosystem function.
Examinations:
The course will be examined by both a mid-term and final examination
conducted in class periods. In addition, there will be required writing
assignments during the course and a group project, consisting of a literature
review, that will be written and presented to the rest of the class.
Other Requirements:
Recommended readings will be deposited on electronic reserve in the
library.
FUNGI AND ECOSYSTEM PROCESSES 56-120-619
Course: 56:120:619 Fungi and Ecosystem Processes (3 credits) A graduate course offered in Camden
Normally offered: Every third fall by Professor John Dighton
Pre-requisition and other registration restrictions:
Open to graduate students with an interest in ecology.
Format:
Each weekly 3 hour evening class period will consist of a mixture of
lecture, group discussion, practical exercise or presentation of critical
reviews of published articles. A field trip to the NJ pine barrens will
be used as a fungal foray and appreciation of fungi in their natural environment.
Description:
This course explores the statements that Rayner makes in his introductory
comments in The Fungal Community: Its Organization and Role in the Ecosystem.
Ed. G/ C. Carrol & D. T. Wicklow (1992) that (i) As decomposers,
fungi drive the global carbon cycle; (ii) As mycorrhizal symbionts, they
form absorptive accessories to roots, linking the activities of separate
plants and underpinning primary production in forests, heathlands and grasslands;
(iii) In lichens, they clothe what might otherwise be bare parts of the
planet and (iv) As parasites, they regulate the population dynamics of
their hosts.’
The diversity, function, community interaction and interaction in trophic webs will be explored in relation to the broader picture of the role of fungi in the processes that underlie ecosystem function.
Examinations:
Evaluation will be based on contribution to class discussions, written
essays and assignments and presentation of a project that critiques literature
in defined area. There will be no formal examination.
Other Requirements:
A selection of highly recommended readings is deposited on reserve
in the library
EXAMPLE SYLLABUS
| Week 1 | General introduction: aims and objectives of the course. The basic fungal structure, clonal organisms and the ‘ultimate fractal organism’. What do we mean by ‘ecosystem’ and what are ‘ecosystem processes’? |
| Week 2 | Outline of fungal taxonomy - the concept of scale and movement between scales of resolution. (Rayner; Fries et al.). |
| Week 3 | Fungi as saprotrophs (Dighton; Sinsabaugh & Liptak)Library literature search - fungi and decomposition; mycorrhizae.Fungi as saprotrophs (Dighton; Sinsabaugh & Liptak)Library literature search - fungi and decomposition; mycorrhizae. |
| Week 4 | Concepts of succession - ecosystem succession, resource succession, competition. Discussion of literature search. |
| Week 5 | Fungi as mycorrhizae (Leake & Read; Simard et al.; Newsham et al.) - definitions and descriptions of mycorrhizae; arbuscular mycorrhizae and agro-ecosystems. Discussion of literature search. |
| Week 6 | Fungi as mycorrhizae (Leake & Read; Simard et al.; Newsham et al.) - ecomycorrhizae, ericoid mycorrhizae and forest ecosystems. Discussion of literature search. |
| Week 7 | Fungi in food webs - interactions between fungi and fauna (Shaw; McGonnigle). Library literature search - fungi and fauna. |
| Week 8 | Activity: assemble information on fungi as saprotrophs and decomposition from literature search - synopsis paper |
| Week 9 | Fungi as plant pathogens (Alexander) Library literature search - pathogenic fungi. |
| Week 10 | Fungi as animal pathogens (Charney) Library literature search - fungi and population regulation. |
| Week 11 | Activity: assemble information on fungi as mycorrhizae from literature search - synopsis paper. |
| Week 12 | Fungi and pollution (Wainwright & Gadd) |
| Week 13 | Activity: assemble information on fungi as pathogens from literature search - synopsis paper. |
| Week 14 | General discussion - filling in the blanks. |
